This article is the second of two regarding a study we conducted in collaboration with the University of Padova that aims to replicate the goldilocks hypothesis in Italian adolescents. The first part (available here) introduced the theoretical rationale and explained the methodology behind the study, here we will illustrate the results and discuss the findings.
Results
Our first analysis showed that girls and older adolescents spend more time on SM. In detail, girls spend from little less than 2 hours a day (11-years-old) to 3 hours and half (17-years-old) on SM, while boys mean time ranged from 1 hours and half (11-years-old) to 2 hours and half (17-years-old) (Figure 1 and table 1)
According to our results, time spent on SM did not show a quadratic association with mental well-being, instead it exhibited a negative linear relationship, both with life satisfaction and general well-being (Figure 2). This result is in contrast with previous studies on the goldilocks hypothesis (e.g., Przybylski & Weinstein, 2017), but not with general reviews and meta-analysis that usually report a small negative association between these two constructs (Orben, 2020).A possible explanation for this phenomenon is the fact that SM generate unique context for selective self-presentation of idealized selves that can cause shifts in self-evaluations due to others’ feedback (Nesi et al., 2018). These environments can be particularly salient and risky to young adolescents’ well-being due to their heightened sensitivity to peer’s feedbacks (Charmaramanet al., 2021). Social comparison’s processes and peer rejection might hamper adolescents’ self-esteem (Cingel et al., 2022), and, especially for girls, increase feelings of body dissatisfaction (Tylka et al., 2023). In turn, adolescents with decreased self-esteem or body image, may develop internalizing symptoms such as worry, anxiety and depression (Sowislo & Orth, 2013), thus decreasing their well-being levels.
On a more positive note, our second hypothesis was confirmed: time spent on SM showed a quadratic association with social well-being (figure 3). In other words, adolescents who spent a moderate amount of time on SM reported higher levels of social well-being compared to those whoused these platforms for shorter or longer times. This result is consistent with the goldilocks hypothesis: adolescents who use SM for short periods of time might struggle to participate in social activities and to keep up with relationships that nowadays develop both online and offline (Angelini et al., 2023). Conversely, adolescents who spend excessivetime on social media may neglect in-person social activities, potentially substituting meaningful offline relationships with weaker online ones (Twenge, 2020). This shift can lead to increased loneliness and a decreased sense of peer support. This outcome aligns with the stimulation hypothesis (Winstone et al., 2021), which posits that social media, as convenient social tools, aid informing and sustaining connections, expanding social networks, and improving the quality of friendships, thereby reducing loneliness.
Furthermore, we investigated the different inflection points for the associations between time spent on SM and social well-being. That is, we identified the point at which the relation between time spent on SM and social well-being shifts from positive to negative (Table 2). Regarding low loneliness, apartfrom 11-year-olds girls, all other age and gender groups exhibited an empirically derived inflection point, which was found earlier (i.e., at lower levels of time spent on SM) in younger adolescents. Furthermore, older girls’ quadratic association showed later inflection points and their predicted scores were more like those of same age males. Concerning peer support instead, inflection points were found at lower levels of time spent on SM in younger girls compared to same age males but there were no differences in older adolescents.
These results highlight how age and gender may moderate the association between time spent on SM and well-being. In fact, early adolescence is a critical time period in which young people report increased attention to peer approval, decreased self-esteem and higher competition with others (Charmaraman et al., 2022). At this age SM, with their focus on self-presentation and impression management, highlight these challenges, leaving early adolescents vulnerable to drops in well-being. Furthermore, girls, in particular, exhibit worse mental-health compared to boys (Campbell et al., 2021), and are particularly invested in highly visual SM (Vannucci & Ohannessian, 2019), the use of which can leave them exposed to social comparison processes and body image concerns (Choukas-Bradley et al., 2022).
Implications and Conclusions
Our study helps disentangling the ambivalent findings in the association between SM use and well-being providing partial support for the digital goldilocks hypothesis.Another important theory that can shed light on our results is the “mobile connectivity paradox” as introduced by Vanden Abeele (2021). In her theoretical paper, she refers to the fact that “while ubiquitous connectivity can support autonomy, it can also challenge that very experience” (Vanden Abeele, 2021, p. 3). In this sense, while SM can increase adolescents’ social well-being by connecting them with their social networks, it can decrease their mental well-being by activating upward social comparisons’ processes. Therefore, it appears fundamental for adolescents to understand which digital practices contribute to supporting their digital well-being, while minimizing potential detrimental effects (Büchi, 2024).
An important limitation of this study though is its cross-sectional nature. This hampers the possibility to infer causal inferences about the association between SM use and well-being. Thus, our study cannot determine whether spending a lot of time on SM has a detrimental effect on well-being or, for example, adolescents with an already impaired well-being are more likely to over-use SM as a coping mechanism (Kardefelt-Winther, 2014).
Nevertheless, ourstudy contributes to a more nuanced understanding of the association between SMuse and well-being within a large, representative sample of Italian adolescents. Although SM can enhance adolescents’ social connections, it can also diminish their mental well-being. This underscores the necessity of identifying an equilibrium between the potential risks and benefits associated with their use. Given the considerable time most adolescents spend on SM, they represent a prominent demographic to study, and for which the development of prevention and intervention programs aimed at reducing functional impairments is of particular importance. Our findings suggest a more complex approach that does not merely stigmatize SM but rather acknowledge their potential for enhancing connections during this critical stage of life. This requires policy makers, educators and families taking a more proactive and balanced line towards these platforms, providing adolescents the opportunity to learn how to use them in ways that foster connections and limit detrimental consequences. Furthermore, our study highlights the heightened vulnerability of early adolescent girls, suggesting the necessity of tailored interventions to address their specific needs.
